Hello all.
This is the last in a three-part series in which a psychology professor (me) takes a good long look at the psychology of horror fiction. In the first entry, we spent some time with Noël Carroll, and his theory of what the “art horror” emotion is (sympathetic fear-plus-disgust). Second, we considered a fundamental question, one that puzzles emotion theorists and researchers: If fear and disgust are negative emotions, and negative emotions motivate us away from the scary disgusting thing, why are people drawn toward horror? Today, we will move away from theories about general human nature, and talk about individual differences.
Not everybody likes horror. Without naming names, I will mention that there are certain members of my family who love those monsters. If they drain our blood, tear our flesh, or drive us mad from the mind-shattering revelation of cosmic evil, we’re there for it (and yes, I say “we” because I am one of the ones who is a fan of horror-but you might have guessed that already). I will also mention that there are certain other members of my family who have absolutely no interest in horror, and suspect that the horror fans might be a little bit messed-up in the head.
To quote the great psychologist Martin the Gravekeeper in Friday the 13th Part VI: “Some folks sure got a strange idea of entertainment.”
So who are these weirdos who think that watching a guy in a hockey mask chop up teenagers, or reading a novel about an evil mind-warping house, is a fun way to spend time? Let’s see if we can come up with an answer by reviewing some research on individual differences in horror preference, and try to assemble a profile of the “typical” horror fan.
(Before I begin, I will point out that psychological research is about describing general trends and statistical likelihoods. You might find that you fit the mold of the average horror fan to a T, or you might not. And you probably know at least one horror fan who does not fit this profile. Just keep in mind that this is the case with all studies, so the existence of exceptions does not invalidate the rule. As Sherlock Holmes put it: “While the individual man is an insoluble puzzle, in the aggregate he becomes a mathematical certainty. You can, for example, never foretell what any one man will do, but you can say with precision what an average number will be up to. Individuals vary, but the percentages remain constant.”)
1. Demographics
Numerous studies on the makeup of audiences have shown that horror fans tend to be male, and young. Keeping mind what I said earlier about these studies being generalizations, researchers have found that male adolescents and young men are the most likely bunch to seek out horror media, are less disturbed by what they see there, and are more likely to report enjoyment of horror in general and graphic horror in particular.
Scholars have come up with differing explanations for why this is the case. Neil Martin connects this pattern to innate neurocognitive differences between the sexes. Overall, women are more prone to anxiety and fear, and show heightened disgust sensitivity compared to men. These patterns in response even extend to neurological differences in how men and women process fear and disgust, so there might be some genetically-influenced hardwiring involved when a woman sees horror and says “too gross and scary,” while a man says “not gross and scary enough.”
Any good psychologist knows that the nature-versus-nurture debate is dead. We have a boat-load of evidence that there are strong biological influences on the kind of person you are. We also have a boat-load of evidence that there are strong environmental influences. So we have dropped the “versus.” In reality, it’s nature AND nurture, so the existence of differences between the sexes in how we process, seek out, and respond to horror should include both genetic and social factors. So now we turn to those social factors.
Horror Films: Current Research on Audience Preferences and Reactions is an outstanding resource for those wanting to get into the scholarly literature on horror. The one downside is that the book was published in 1996, so a lot of the references to horror films are dated, but you can find excellent summaries of some of the classic—and still influential—theories. In one chapter, Dolf Zillmann and James Weaver explore gender and socialization as one way of looking at the appeal of horror to young males. In modern society, we have fewer opportunities for young men to prove themselves in the traditional roles of hunter and warrior; fewer opportunities to show that they are brave and strong enough to face down enemies. Zillmann and Weaver point out that, when young men go to horror movies, part of the enjoyment comes from watching the terrible things without showing fear. Hang around young guys after a horror film, and you will see a lot of laughing and bragging and posturing (“I wasn’t sacred! You were scared because you’re a weenie! My favorite part was when that guy’s head got crushed—that was hilarious! I tell ya what; if a wolfman ever came around here, I’d kick his butt!”).
2. Mental Health
There is a tendency for some to think that people who love horror fiction are, at some level, nutjobs. This is an understandable way of thinking, especially when it comes from those who are not fans of the genre; surely there must be something twisted about a person who enjoys tales of the monstrous and bloody. As an explanation, it also resolves the psychological paradox of horror that we covered last time: if the normal human reaction to the horrific is to flee, then those who love it—and want more of it—must be abnormal. Some horror fans embrace this label, boasting about how wonderfully warped they are, and describing certain films as being scary enough to “mess you up for life.” But is there any actual connection between horror fandom and psychological dysfunction?
Nope.
There are certain cases of people with pre-existing anxiety disorders who have extremely negative reactions to horror, a rare reaction pattern called “cinematic neurosis,” but researchers have consistently found no evidence that horror fiction has any connection to mental health outcomes for those with no prior mental health issues. The worst that horror does to a person without a prior vulnerability is a possible short-term increase in nervousness and trouble sleeping.
So, while some psychos might like horror, the average horror fan is not a psycho.
3. Personality
We have established that horror fans are not more likely to be mentally disturbed, but what about the non-pathological individual difference variables? Turning from pathology to personality, researchers have consistently found three personality traits to be associated with preference for horror: sensation-seeking, aggression, and empathy.
Sensation-seeking is a personality trait with four factors. People with high levels of this trait are easily bored, less inhibited in their behavior, seek thrills, and want to have new and interesting experiences. Someone with high scores on a measure of sensation-seeking is more likely to take up surfing or mountain climbing, have unusual taste in music, gamble, enjoy the company of unpredictable friends, and enjoy arguing. This has been the most widely-studied personality trait in connection with horror, and several researchers have found that people with high scores on measures of sensation-seeking are more likely to enjoy horror. So our first part of a personality profile of a typical horror fan is that this is a person who likes intense experiences.
There are many different kinds of sensations, of course. Wanting to experience something intense could lead a person to skydiving or roller coasters instead of slasher films. Another trait that has been found to be associated with horror preference is aggressiveness. People with more aggressive personalities are more likely to seek out and enjoy horror. This is commonly interpreted by scholars in connection with research on media and aggression in general, but that is a topic for another time.
A third trait associated with preference for horror is empathy. Specifically, low levels of empathy. Hoffner and Levine conducted a meta-analysis of a multitude of studies linking personality with horror, and found that participants with lower scores on concern for others’ welfare, and on distress over others’ suffering, were more likely to enjoy frightening and violent media. Which makes sense: it is difficult for a person to enjoy watching the Friday the 13th films if that person is dispositionally-inclined to spend the movies saying “Oh, those poor teenagers! How awful!”
So, putting these studies together, we have the skeleton of a psychological profile of the typical horror fan. This person is most likely to be a young male who wants to feel something intense (sensation-seeking), preferably involving violence (aggression), and without caring that much about the suffering of the victims (low empathy).
There are other angles that we can take, if we want to get into the psychology of horror. We have not even touched on the question of development (reactions to horror at different stages of life), how children cope with exposure to horror, cross-cultural differences, the use of sound in horror films, or on the neurophysiological responses to exposure to horror. There have also been one or two studies in which the researchers looked at personality traits other than sensation-seeking, aggressiveness, and empathy.
We have also not talked about types of horror. The vast majority of research on this topic has been about horror films. Are there relevant differences between watchers of horror movies and readers of horror fiction? Would we expect any personality differences between those who enjoy psychological horror versus “torture porn” horror? One researcher divides viewers by motivation, and argues that the psychology of fans who watch because they want to see a satisfactory resolution to a frightening film will be different from those who enjoy the experience of being scared by itself, which will also be different from those who want to view gore.
There are a lot of opportunities for further exploration of this topic, and greater levels of complexity to which we could take this discussion. I invite everyone to contribute their insights in the comments below, and to check out this book, this review, and this meta-analysis for more information about research on the psychology of horror.
Until next time, everybody…